GENERAL INFORMATION

Hittite Empire Period (ca. 1400-1180 BCE)
The Hittite Kingdom was the first major polity established in central Anatolia. Founded in the late 17th century BCE, it persisted until its collapse in the early 12th century BCE. The kingdom’s royal center was the city of Hattusa (Boğazkale), though for brief periods the cities of Sapinuwa (Ortaköy) and Tarhuntassa (exact location unknown) also served as the seat of the Hittite king. Records indicate that at least 27 kings ruled the kingdom (see list below). While some successions involved bloody power struggles, all Hittite kings were likely part of the same extended royal family. Around 1400 BCE, during the reign of Tudhaliya I, the Hittite state expanded significantly, marking the beginning of what is known as the Hittite Empire. The earlier period, spanning the 17th to 15th centuries BCE, is typically referred to as the Old Kingdom. At its height in the 13th century BCE, the Hittites controlled vast territories, including much of central and western Anatolia and parts of Syria.

Neo-Hittite Period (ca. 1180-650 BCE)
Also known as Late Hittite or Syro-Hittite, this term traditionally refers to the period between the 12th and 7th centuries BCE, following the collapse of the Hittite state. During this time, several small kingdoms (see list below) emerged in Anatolia and northern Syria. While these states are often regarded as cultural continuations of the Hittite tradition, their rulers and populations were predominantly Luwian speakers. By the 9th century BCE and later, other languages, such as Phoenician and Aramaic, began to appear in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria, reflecting the region’s growing linguistic diversity. The Neo-Hittite states ultimately disappeared as a result of invasions by the Phrygians, Assyrians, Urartians, and Cimmerians.

Transitional Period (ca. 1180-1000 BCE)
This term, relatively new, refers to a sub-period of the Neo-Hittites, encompassing the 12th and 11th centuries—a time generally labeled as a "Dark Age" in the ancient Near East. This era is associated with a significant decline in societal complexity, writing systems, and urban life. However, recent discoveries and advancements in understanding have revealed evidence of socio-political continuity in various regions of the former Hittite territories. Consequently, several monuments have been re-dated to the Transitional period.

Language
The Hittites spoke an Indo-European language. The term "Hittite" is modern and derives from the biblical "Heth," which, in turn, traces back to "Hatti," the name used by the Hattic people for the region in central Anatolia before the Hittite conquest. After establishing their state on this land, the Hittites continued to refer to their country as "Hatti" and to themselves as the "people of Hatti." However, they called their own language Nesili (or Nesite in English), named after the city of Nesa (modern-day Kültepe), a major urban center in central Anatolia. The Hittite language is preserved in thousands of clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform script, primarily discovered in Hattusa (modern-day Boğazkale, formerly Boğazköy) and, to a lesser extent, in other locations across Anatolia and Syria. While the Hittites adopted cuneiform script from Mesopotamia for writing on clay tablets, it was never used for their monuments. Instead, all inscribed Hittite monuments were written in Luwian language, using the Anatolian Hieroglyphic script (also known as Hieroglyphic Luwian script), a writing system developed locally in Anatolia (see below).

Monuments
This website is dedicated to the stone monuments of the Hittite and Neo-Hittite cultures. A great majority of the monuments have been commissioned by the central authorities for socio-political purposes. Some exceptions to this are the Neo-Hittite period funerary steles, particularly common around the region of Maraş. These monuments can include reliefs and/or inscriptions carved directly into natural rock (rock monuments) or removable objects such as steles, statues, orthostats, and similar items. A great majority of the Hittite monuments date to the Hittite Empire period and afterwards. Among the inscribed monuments, two of the oldest examples are the inscription (ALEPPO 1) of Talmi-Šarruma in Aleppo and the relief+inscription of King Muwatalli II in Sirkeli, both dating to around 1300 BCE. While monuments from the Empire period are fewer in number, they are geographically widespread. In contrast, the more numerous Neo-Hittite monuments are concentrated primarily in central Anatolia and northern Syria.

Inscriptions
A list of monumental Hittite and Neo-Hittite inscriptions is provided on a separate page. A great majority of these inscriptions are written in Luwian, specifically in Hieroglyphic Luwian, which is distinct from Cuneiform Luwian—a related but separate language. Luwian, like Hittite, is an Indo-European language. The script used in these inscriptions is also referred to as Hieroglyphic Luwian, Luwian Hieroglyphs, or more recently, Anatolian Hieroglyphs. This script, developed in Anatolia, was primarily used to write Luwian. Writing could be oriented in any direction. Multi-line texts often followed a boustrophedon pattern, similar to an ox plowing a field – alternating the direction of writing from line to line. In addition to stone monuments, the hieroglyphic script was also used on seals, pottery, metalware, and other objects; however, these non-monumental items are not included here. A small number of Neo-Hittite inscriptions of the 9th century and afterwards are written in Phoenician and Aramaic.

Script
The Anatolian Hieroglyphic script is a logo-syllabic writing system. In most basic terms, some signs represent whole words (e.g., "king," "justice," "son," "bad"), while others represent syllables, such as vowels like a, i, u, or consonant-vowel combinations like pa, pi, pu. The script contains over 500 signs, although their usage varied across periods and media. Certain signs were exclusive to the Empire period, others to the Neo-Hittite period, and some only appeared on seals. Additionally, individual signs could have variant forms depending on the time and region.

Why did the Hittites write their monuments in Luwian language?
This question concerns only the Empire period, since during the Neo-Hittite period pretty much all polities were made up of Luwian speakers. For now, the answers remain speculative. One possibility is that the locally developed hieroglyphic script, with its pictorial shapes, was easier to learn and understand. By the time the first monuments appeared around 1300 BCE, this script had already been in use for centuries to inscribe names and titles on seals. Additionally, it is likely that by the 13th century BCE, the majority of the multi-ethnic population spoke Luwian, while Hittite was primarily used by the administrative class. As a result, while the administration continued to rely on the long-established and versatile cuneiform script to write in Hittite for state's "paperwork," for public-facing media, such as monuments, may have preferred to write in Luwian with the hieroglyphic script.

Hittite Kings Name Date Relation Labarna I Hattušili I (Labarna II) ca. 1600 BCE    Nephew? of Labarna I’s wife Muršili I Grandson? of Hattušili I  Hantili I Brother-in-law of Muršili I  Zidanta I Son-in-law of Hantili I  Ammuna Son of Zidanta I  Huzziya I Son? of Ammuna  Telipinu ca. 1500 Brother-in-law of Huzziya I  Alluwamna Son-in-law of Telipinu  Hantili II Son of Alluwamna  Tahurwaili ?  Zidanta II (Zidanza) Nephew? of Hantili II  Huzziya II Son of Zidanta II? Muwatalli I ?  Tudhaliya I/II ca. 1400 Grandson of Huzziya II?  Arnuwanda I Son-in-law of Tudhaliya I/II  Tudhaliya III (Tašmišarri) Son of Arnuwanda I  Tudhaliya, the Younger Son of Tudhaliya III  Šuppiluliuma I ca. 1350 Son-in-law of Tudhaliya III  Arnuwanda II Son of Šuppiluliuma I  Muršili II Son of Šuppiluliuma I  Muwatalli II (Šarri-Teššub) ca. 1300 Son of Muršili II  Muršili III (Urhi-Teššub) Son of Muwatalli II  Hattušili III Son of Muršili II  Tudhaliya IV (Tašmi-Šarruma)    ca. 1240 Son of Hattušili III  Arnuwanda III Son of Tudhaliya IV  Šuppiluliuma II ca. 1208 Son of Tudhaliya IV

Some of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms Kingdom Location Karkamiš Centered around Carchemish Malizi Centered around Arslantepe, Malatya  Masuwari Centered around Tel Ahmar  Kummaha Classical Commagene, Samsat  Kurkuma/Gurgum    Centered around Maraş  Sam'al Centered around Zincirli, Gaziantep  Hilikka?/Hilaqqu Classical Rough Cilicia  Hiyawa Classical Cilicia Plain  Tabal Classical Cappadocia  Tuwana Classical Tyana, Kemerhisar, Niğde Hupisna Classical Cybistra, near Ereğli in Konya  Falastin Centered around Tell Tayinat, area from Hatay to Aleppo  Imatu Centered around Hama in Syria